Effects of Keyword In Context Input Enhancement on the
L2 Acquisition of French Clitic Pronouns
Stephanie J. Stauffer
Proposal for the Dissertation
ABSTRACT:
Keyword In Context (KWIC) concordancing software has been in use for over a decade as a tool for giving language students a way of organizing data from foreign language corpora in order to explore aspects of language that cannot be covered exhaustively by dictionaries and other reference materials. Until now, however, there have been no published, formal studies of the effects that KWIC work might have on precipitating change in learners' interlanguage.
An exploratory study conducted in the Fall of 1998, with data analysis still ongoing (Stauffer, in preparation), was designed to provide descriptions of and categories for the processes that learners use and the effects of various types of tasks on the focus of learners' attention while they are engaged in KWIC work. Preliminary finding indicate that certain types of KWIC tasks did facilitate a focus on linguistic form combined within a broader focus on the meaning of the text. The proposed project will use a time-series design to examine the development of French non-subject clitic pronouns in the interlanguage of intermediate-to-advanced students of French.
The French clitic pronoun is of interest because it is necessary for target-like writing competence. Being bound and unstressed, it is not perceptually salient in speech, and it is easily avoided in production by native speakers of English because French offers a structure that is parallel to the L1 structure. It is also of interest because there is evidence of a developmental course in child bilingual acquisition of French clitics (Kaiser, 1994), though very little work has been done with adult instructed L2 learners of French with respect to their acquisition.
It is expected that the KWIC concordancing tasks will have a positive effect on change in subjects' use of non-subject pronoun clitics in speech and in writing. It is also anticipated that the study will confirm the developmental sequence suggested by Kaiser's study.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT:
Theoretical Framework:
Over the past decade, many language teachers who embraced various communicative classroom approaches have discovered that a pure focus on meaning within the language classroom produces proficient but not accurate learners. In addition, researchers who study adult, instructed second language acquisition (SLA) have demonstrated that classrooms with traditional, synthetic approaches do not produce successful language learners (Doughy & Williams, 1998b; Long, 1991; Long & Crookes, 1992; Long & Robinson, 1998).
The motivation for use of communicative methods is still strong, but it is recognized that ways must be found to increase learners' accuracy in speech and writing. It is hypothesized that, to increase accuracy, learners must notice the differences between the language they use and target-like use. To increase the probability of noticing (Schmidt, to appear; Tomlin & Villa, 1994) a technique for the meaning-focused classroom has been proposed. This technique, called focus on form (Long, 1991) "...overtly draws students' attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication." (Long, 1991, pp. 45-46)
Various methods of "draw[ing] students' attention to linguistic elements" have been discussed in the literature. Input enhancement (Sharwood-Smith, 1993, 1994) may be oral or written; it may take the form of seeding the input with the linguistic item of interest (the input flood), or of using typographical devices such as underlining or manipulating font size (see, e.g., Jourdenais, Ota, Stauffer, Boyson, & Doughty, 1995; White, 1998).
Another common attention-focusing method, one which involves feedback, is the recast, delivered in speech or writing. The spoken recast (an immediate reformulation of a learner's non-target-like utterance) provides one of the best instantiations of Long's (1991) definition of focus on form. A study of recasts of past tense forms delivered to junior high school students of Spanish in an immersion classroom showed significant improvement for the experimental group, those who received recasts (Doughty & Varela, 1998).
There are linguistic forms, however, that either are found more typically in written texts or are not easily recast for learners in speech. For example, non-target-like use of many features of written text that signal sophisticated control of the second language might require a complicated reformulation not possible to capture with a simple recast. A learner would probably find it difficult or impossible to retain in memory and process such a reformulation if delivered in speech. For such structures, it seems clear that focus on form ought to be accomplished in the written mode. As a way of drawing learners' attention to problematic forms and their functions in written discourse, this project will use a previously unstudied type of input enhancement, the keyword in context (KWIC) concordancing software display
KWIC concordancing software has been in use for over a decade as a tool for giving language students a way of organizing data from foreign language corpora in order to explore aspects of language that cannot be covered exhaustively by dictionaries and other reference materials (Aston, 1996) [1]. Until now, however, there have been no published, formal studies of the processes that learners use while they explore corpora or of the effects that KWIC work might have on precipitating change in learners' interlanguage [2].
The principle of a KWIC concordancer is simple: the software processes files of electronic text, indexing distinct word forms, or types, in the text, and keeping track of the occurrences of every word form, or tokens of each type. Search results are displayed as lines of text containing the search term, with the term highlighted in the center of each line. The lines of text in the search results may normally be sorted according to context. Many concordancers allow users to view, in a separate window, the original context of each item from the display of search results. Statistics relating to patterns of co-occurrence (t-test and mutual information scores, for example, in WordSmith Tools, Scott, 1998) are often available.
Figure 1: KWIC display, Conc (1993)
Figure 1 illustrates a sample KWIC concordance display, with the search results for the type leur appearing in the lower window. The user has clicked on the first line of the search results, and so in the upper window the user can examine the text in which the token originally appeared. Notice that the search results have been sorted alphabetically by the first word to the right of the search term (assèner, augmentation, autonomie, etc.).
In language teaching, KWIC concordancers have been used to encourage language students to examine the contexts of odd or rare usage, to test their own familiarity with specialized vocabulary, and to build knowledge of common collocations (Aston, 1996; Johns, 1994, 1998; Scott, 1998; Sinclair, 1991; Stevens, 1995; Tribble & Jones, 1990). The concordancing software to be used in this study allows users to go back and forth easily between a KWIC display and the full context for each keyword in the display, in order to search for patterns and also to examine contexts. This arrangement, it is hypothesized, will facilitate noticing (and exploration) of formal patterns while allowing learners to engage with the meaning of the enhanced forms in their original context.
An exploratory study conducted in the Fall of 1998, with data analysis still ongoing (Stauffer, in preparation), was designed to provide descriptions of and categories for the processes that learners use and the effects of various types of tasks on the focus of learners' attention while they are engaged in KWIC work. Preliminary finding indicate that certain types of KWIC tasks did facilitate a focus on linguistic form combined within a broader focus on the meaning of the text. The proposed project will build on the results of the previous study, implementing these KWIC task types in order to study the effects of KWIC work on developments in the interlanguage of intermediate-to-advanced-level university students of French as a foreign language.
As discussed above, it was important, in motivating the use of the KWIC concordancer, to choose a form that would be a prime candidate for treatment with written input. Slobin's (1985) criteria of linguistic features that are difficult to perceive in speech and least likely to become intake for the developing linguistic system include items that are bound, contracted, and unstressed. Such items would seem to be good candidates for written treatment.
The issue of which linguistic forms might be amenable to focus on form is also of interest. A number of possible criteria have been suggested. Forms that "differ in non-obvious ways from the learner's L1," or are "not important for successful communication," (Harley, 1993; quoted in Williams & Evans, 1998, p. 140) are likely candidates. Others have suggested (e.g. Pienemann & Johnston, 1986) that developmental readiness must be taken into account, and so the learnability of the form must be considered. An emergent form, one that the learner has attempted to use, is one that should be amenable to treatment.
For this study, the pedagogical setting of the research must also be considered. Teaching learners to write within accepted French discourse forms (the dissertation; the explication de texte) is an important goal of the course from which subjects will be drawn. For this reason, it was necessary to find an emergent (and hence learnable) form that is not necessary for learners to produce in order to communicate meaning (Harley's "not important for successful communication"), but which contributes to discourse cohesion and therefore to development of a target-like writing style.
The form which meets these criteria is the French clitic pronoun. Being bound and unstressed, it is not perceptually salient in speech. It is easily avoided in production by native speakers of English because French offers a structure that is parallel to the L1 structure, but it is necessary for demonstration of target-like writing competence. To those who study text and how we make meaning from text, pronouns are of interest as discourse-cohesive devices (Halliday & Hasan, 1976). In the study of acquisition of clitics, it is necessary to provide a discourse context both for treatment and for testing of learners' comprehension and control of the forms (Camps, 1997; Garnham, Oakhill, Ehrlich, & Carreiras, 1995; Sanz , 1995; VanPatten, 1990b; Tarone, 1988). Hence, clitics are a prime candidate for treatment with KWIC tasks.
The developmental course of the acquisition of clitic pronouns is also of interest. Very little work has been done with adult instructed L2 learners of French with respect to acquisition of clitics, though there is evidence of a developmental progression in child bilingual acquisition of French (Kaiser, 1994).
Clitics are "phonologically reduced elements which obligatorily attach to another element" (Kapur & Clark, 1994, p. 12). The French pronoun clitics, sometimes called 'weak' pronouns, attach to the associated verb in a pre-verbal position and follow rigid rules of order (Kapur & Clark, 1994; Perlmutter, 1971). Unlike constructions that use their 'strong,' or non-clitic, counterparts, adverbs may not be placed between the clitic and the verb. In addition, unlike the strong pronoun, the clitic pronoun may not appear without the verb.
The set of clitics of interest in this study are the non-subject first, second, and third person singular and plural pronouns; the reflexive pronouns; and the adverb clitics en and y, substitutions for 'de + object' and 'à + object', respectively. (See Perlmutter, 1971, for a complete description and examples.) The clitic pronouns 'double' the system of free pronouns. In most cases where constructions are possible using either a clitic or a free pronoun, use of the free pronoun will be emphatic.
It should be noted that most of the clitic forms have other functions. As focus on form has been posited as a technique for guiding learners to sort out form-function mappings, this overlap of functions provides a good point of departure for the tasks under development for this research. (See Figure 1, above, where a KWIC display shows exemplars of leur undifferentiated by function.)
From initial examination of subjects' writing in the exploratory study (Stauffer, in preparation), all subjects demonstrated comprehension of all clitic forms in a pre-test. Clitics showed emergence for almost all subjects in the category of reflexives, and for many subjects in the category of direct object pronouns. This indicates that the set of forms should be learnable by subjects at this curricular level (though baseline data will have to be collected for each subject in the present study).
The research questions to be addressed in this study will be:
Research Methodology:
This study will use a time-series design to examine the development of French non-subject clitic pronouns in the interlanguage of intermediate-to-advanced students of French. It has been pointed out (cf. Mellow, Reeder, & Forster, 1996) that there is a need for more longitudinal studies of language acquisition, as many of the studies reported in the literature use cross-sectional data and therefore are limited in their ability to illuminate the developmental course of SLA.
Tasks and procedures will be refined and piloted during the Spring semester of 1999, and data for this study will be collected over the course of the summer semester, with the Fall of 1999 as an opportunity for replication and/or additional data collection, if necessary. Data will be collected from intermediate-to-advanced students of French at Georgetown University (and possibly at other area universities). An exploratory study (Stauffer, in preparation) used pairs of students in order to capture their interactions and discover their foci of attention and the processes that they used while engaged in KWIC work. The present study will modify the model established in that study in order to study individual learners and the changes, over time, in their French interlanguage. Subjects will be part of intact groups, though treatment will take place out of class, so variables such as onset of treatment can be staggered as necessary as part of the time-series design. In this type of case-study design, subjects act as their own controls and so no separate control group will be included in the study. though still in the planning stages, it is anticipated that the study will use an ABAB design so that effects of more than one KWIC task type can be ascertained.
A baseline of students' written and oral production on a range of tasks will be established before any concordancing tasks are introduced. Matched pre- and post-tests will also be administered. After baselines are established, a series of 30-minute concordancing tasks will be administered, requiring learners to examine contexts in which clitics occur, and to process discourse that contains clitics and depends on the correct identification of their antecedents for comprehension. Tasks will be framed for the learners as reading comprehension activities with a focus on elements that contribute to discourse cohesion but that are sometimes hard to understand. (This framework was successful in the exploratory study.) While each subject is working on the KWIC tasks, the contents of the computer screen will be captured to videotape as well in order to provide additional information about student attentional focus. After each concordancing task, a number of language samples will be collected. Subjects will take part in debriefing interviews as well, which will elicit their opinions on the KWIC tasks and what they thought they learned from the tasks. Post-treatment and delayed post-treatment production, both written and oral, will be examined for each subject at set intervals. It is possible that further delayed post-treatment production might be available as well.
Data will consist of the pre- and post-test results, along with the writing and speech samples analyzed for target-like use of clitics. Appropriate statistics, both parametric and non-parametric, will be run in order to test the significance of patterns of change, both within and across subjects.
Expected Outcomes:
It is expected that subjects will show change in production and comprehension of French non-subject clitic pronouns. It is expected that this change will be most pronounced in writing tasks; and that it will be most pronounced for subjects who began the study with lower target-like use scores and lower comprehension scores. It is also expected that the changes in interlanguage will be similar across subjects, and also similar to those identified by Kaiser (1994) for bilingual child acquisition of French clitic pronouns.
It is expected that the KWIC concordancing tasks will have a positive effect on comprehension and production of French non-subject clitic pronouns. It is expected that these positive effects will be lasting, through the post-test and delayed post-test.
PROJECT'S APPLICATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING:
As one study in a small but growing body of research on the acquisition of French as a foreign language, this research should yield useful descriptive data on the acquisition of French clitic pronouns by adult instructed language learners. It should provide information about the developmental stages involved with the acquisition of clitics, and how learners exhibit their control over these forms in writing and in speaking.
This project should also expand the field's repertoire of input enhancement techniques by describing, in detail, the use of concordancing software and KWIC tasks for the language learner.
With the rise in availability of multilingual electronic corpora and concordancing tools both on the World Wide Web and as commercial products, language learners have a set of powerful tools to help them in their endeavor. It is important that educators and materials designers be aware of these tools, and understand what happens when learners use them so that they can adapt their methods and materials appropriately.
RELATIONSHIP OF THE PROJECT TO MY OWN RESEARCH INTERESTS:
At the beginning of my Ph.D. studies, in 1993, I developed an interest in natural language processing (NLP) and its potential uses in language teaching. I was quickly convinced, however, that NLP did not yet have much to offer in this area, and would not for some time. But my attention was caught by the new availability of text resources on the World Wide Web, along with the tools for processing large corpora. In a course offered by Dr. Cathy Ball, I first encountered concordancing software. Immediately, the KWIC concordancer's potential as an attention-focusing, input-enhancement-delivery device was evident.
This study represents an intersection of my research interests in (a) interlanguage development of adult instructed language learners, (b) technology in language education, (c) data collection methods, and (d) the development of efficient methods of focusing learner attention on form, where the forms involved require a sophisticated sense of the L2 discourse, and might be more easily noticed and acquired in the written mode.
In my one previously published research study, "Does textual enhancement promote noticing: A think-aloud protocol analysis" (Jourdenais, Ota, Stauffer, Boyson, & Doughty; 1995) I was able to explore the effects of textual enhancement on learner processing of input, using the think-aloud protocol as a means of examining what students noticed during a writing task in Spanish as a second language. Enhancement was accomplished by manipulation of the fonts using standard word-processing options (underlining, bolding, outlining characters).
At the conclusion of this study, I knew that the think-aloud research methodology was of interest, but I was not convinced of the value of textual enhancement in the way it had been delivered in this study. I knew that I wished to study KWIC concordancing as an input enhancement device.
The present study builds on "Advanced French Learners and KWIC Concordancing: An Exploratory Study" (Stauffer & Michel-Gutierrez, 1998), in which I began to put my research agenda into practice. We collected data from pairs of students performing a series of KWIC tasks. Sessions were videotaped, the screen output was captured to video, and students were encouraged to talk as much as possible while they did the tasks. As with the think-aloud protocol, the collection and transcription of pair-work data permitted insights into learner processes and task design features.
The present study should serve as a basis for my developing research agenda. After the dissertation, I intend to expand the pool of subjects to those with lower language proficiency in order to test the ability of such learners to process the "messy" data offered by the concordancer. I intend, in further research, to include learning problems, such as adverb placement, that have been studied in other contexts and that might complement the work with clitics. I also plan to study the possible uses of tagged text, allowing learners to search for pre-defined textual elements, ranging from parts of speech, to anaphors and their antecedents, to anything that the learner finds useful as a unit of analysis. The pedagogical application of concordancing techniques to audio and video data is also of interest.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
ABU. (1998). Repository of French e-texts. Available URL: <http://cedric.cnam.fr/ABU/>.
Aston, G. (1996). The British National corpus as a language learner resource. In S. Botley, J. Glass, T. McEnery, & A. Wilson (Eds.), Conference proceedings, Teaching and Language Corpora 1996. Technical Papers, 9 (pp. 178-191). Lancaster: UCREL.
BNC online. (1998). Available URL: <http://thetis.bl.uk/>.
Burnard, L. (1995). The British National Corpus Users Reference Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Computing Services.
Camps, J. (1997). Attention to form and meaning in second language acquisition: Object clitic pronouns in Spanish. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University.
Carreiras, M., Garnham, A., & Oakhill, J. (1996). Understanding anaphora: The role of superficial and conceptual information. In M. Carreiras, J. E. García-Albea, & N. Sebastían-Gallés (Eds.), Language processing in Spanish (pp. 241-274). Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cobuild Home Page. (1998). Available URL <http://titania.cobuild.collins.co.uk/>.
Conc 1.76: A concordance generator for the Macintosh. (1993, December). Available URL <http://www.sil.org/computing/conc/>. Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Cook, G., & Seidhofer, B. (Eds.). (1995). Principles and practice in the study of language. Oxford: OUP.
Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (1998a). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge: CUP.
Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (1998b). Issues and terminology. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.),Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 1-11). Cambridge: CUP.
Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (1998c). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.),Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 197-261). Cambridge: CUP.
Doughty, C., & Varela, E. (1998). Communicative focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 114-138). Cambridge: CUP.
L'Express. (1998). Online version. Available URL: <http://www.lexpress.presse.fr/>.
FLIRT (Foreign Language Initiatives for Research and Teaching). (1996). Available URL: <http://www.georgetown.edu/users/jourdenr/flirt/>.
Foster, P., & Skehan, P. (1996). The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in second Language Acquisition, 18(3), 299-323.
Garnham, A., Oakhill, J., Ehrlich, M.-F., & Carreiras, M. (1995). Representations and processes in the interpretations of pronouns: New evidence from Spanish and French. Journal of Memory and Language, 34(41-62).
Haegeman, L. (1991). Introduction to government & binding theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Harley, B. (1992). Patterns of second language development in French immersion. Journal of French Language Studies, 2, 159-183.
Harley, B. (1993). Instructional strategies and SLA in early French immersion. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2), 245-260.
Hill, J., & Lewis, M. (1997). LTP dictionary of selected collocations . Hove, UK: Language Teaching Publications.
Johns, T. (1994). From printout to handout. In T. Odlin (Ed.), Perspectives on pedagogical grammar (pp. 293-313). Cambridge: CUP.
Johns, T. (1998). Data-driven learning page. Available URL <http://sun1.bham.ac.uk/johnstf/timconc.htm>.
Jordan, G. (1993). Concordancers: Research findings and learner processes. Unpublished MA Ed (TESOL) thesis, London Institute.
Jourdenais, R., Ota, M., Stauffer, S., Boyson, B., & Doughty, C. (1995). Does textual enhancement promote noticing: A think-aloud protocol analysis. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 183-216). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
Kaiser, Georg. (1994). More about INFL-ection and agreement: The acquisition of clitic pronouns in French. In J. Meisel (Ed.), Bilingual first language acquisition: French and German grammatical development (pp. 131-159). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kapur, S., & Clark, R. (1994). The automatic identification and classification of clitic pronouns. Paper presented at the Workshop on the L1- and L2-Acquisition of Clause-Internal Rules: Scrambling and Cliticization, University of Berne, Institute of Linguistics, January 21-23, 1994. Available URL: <ftp://babel.ling.upenn.edu/papers/faculty/robin_clark/papers/clitics.ps>.
Kowal, M., & Swain, M. (1994). Using collaborative language production tasks to promote students' language awareness. Language Awareness, 3(2), 73-93.
Kowal, M., & Swain, M. (1997). From semantic to syntactic processing: How can we promote metalinguistic awareness in the French immersion classroom? In K. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion education: International perspectives (pp. 284-309). Cambridge: CUP.
Kucera, H., & Francis, W. (1967). Computational analysis of present-day American English. Providence, RI: Brown University Press.
Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. Hove, UK: Language teaching Publications.
Lightbown, P. (1998). The importance of timing in focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 177-196). Cambridge: CUP.
Long, M. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg, and C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 39-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Long, M., & Crookes, G. (1992). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. TESOL Quarterly, 26(1), 27-56.
Long, M. & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 15-41). Cambridge: CUP.
Loschky, L, & Bley-Vroman, R. (1993). Grammar and task-based methodology. In G. Crookes & S. Gass (Eds.), Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 123-167). Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters.
Meisel, J. (Ed.) (1994). Bilingual first language acquisition: French and German grammatical development. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Mellow, J. D., Reeder, K., & Forster, E. (1996). Using time-series research designs to investigate je effects of instruction on SLA. Studies in second Language Acquisition, 18(3), 325-350.
Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford: OUP.
Perlmutter, D. (1971). Deep and surface structure constraints in syntax. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Pienemann, M., & Johnston, M. (1986). An acquisition-based procedure for language assessment. Australian review of Applied Linguistics, 9(1), 92-112.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, L. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of English. New York: Longman.
Robinson, P. (Ed.) (to appear). Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: CUP.
Sanz Alcalá, C. (1995). Task, mode and effects of input-based explicit instruction. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Schmidt, R. (to appear). The centrality of attention in SLA. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: CUP.
Scott, M. (1998). WordSmith Tools Version 2.0. Available URL <http://www1.oup.co.uk/elt/catalogu/multimed/4589846/4589846.html>.
Sharwood-Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA: Theoretical bases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2), 165-179.
Sharwood-Smith, M. (1994). Second language learning: Theoretical foundations. New York: Longman.
Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Slobin, D. (1985). Crosslinguistic evidence for the language-making capacity. In D. Slobin (Ed.), The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition, vol. 2 (1157-1249). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Stauffer, S. (in preparation). KWIC Concordancing as focus on form. Unpublished manuscript, Georgetown University.
Stauffer, S., & Michele-Gutierrez, C. (1998). Advanced French Learners and KWIC Concordancing: An Exploratory Study (in progress). Seminar presentation, Georgetown University, December, 1998.
Stevens, V. (1995). Concordancing with language learners: Why? When? What? CAELL Journal 6(2), 2-10.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidhofer (Eds.), Principles and practice in the study of language (pp. 125-144). Oxford: OUP.
Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 64-81). Cambridge: CUP.
Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics 16(3), 370-391.
TALC 98. (1998). Conference proceedings, Teaching and Language Corpora 1998. Oxford: Seacourt Press.
TALC 98 Supplement. (1998). Oxford: OU Humanities Computing Unit.
TALC 96. (1996). S. Botley, J. Glass, T. McEnery, & A. Wilson (Eds.), Conference proceedings, Teaching and Language Corpora 1996. Technical Papers, 9. Lancaster: Unit for Computer Research on the English Language (UCREL).
TALC 94. (1994). A. Wilson & T. McEnery (Eds.), Corpora in language education and research. Technical Papers, 4. Lancaster: Unit for Computer Research on the English Language (UCREL).
Tarone, E. (1988). Variation in interlanguage. London: Edward Arnold.
Tomlin, R., & Villa, V. (1994). Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16(2), 183-203.
Tribble, C., & Jones, G. (1990). Concordancing in the classroom. London: Longman.
VanPatten, B., & Lee, J. F. (Eds.). (1990a). Second language acquisition/foreign language learning. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.
VanPatten, B. (1990b). The acquisition of clitic pronouns in Spanish: Two case studies. In B. VanPatten & J. F. Lee (Eds.), Second language acquisition/foreign language learning (pp. ). Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.
VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
White, J. (1998). Getting the learners' attention: A typographical input enhancement study. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 85-113). Cambridge: CUP.
Williams, J., & Evans, J. (1998). What kind of focus and on which forms? In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 139-155). Cambridge: CUP.
Willis, D. (1990). The lexical syllabus: A new approach to language teaching. London: HarperCollins Publishers.